ETYMOLOGY
The name of Orang Utan is derived from the Malay and Indonesian words Orang means “person” and hutan means “forest, thus “person of the forest”. Orang Utan was originally not used to refer to apes, but to forest dwelling humans. The Malay words used to refer specifically to the ape is maias and mawas, but it is unclear if those words refer only to orangutans, or to all apes in general. The first attestation of the word to name the Asian ape is in Jacobus Bontinus 1631 “Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae orientalis” – he described that Malaysians had informed him that the ape was able to talk, but preferred not to “lest he be compelled to labour”. The word comes specifically from the Banjarese variety of Malay.
The name of Orang Utan is derived from the Malay and Indonesian words Orang means “person” and hutan means “forest, thus “person of the forest”. Orang Utan was originally not used to refer to apes, but to forest dwelling humans. The Malay words used to refer specifically to the ape is maias and mawas, but it is unclear if those words refer only to orangutans, or to all apes in general. The first attestation of the word to name the Asian ape is in Jacobus Bontinus 1631 “Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae orientalis” – he described that Malaysians had informed him that the ape was able to talk, but preferred not to “lest he be compelled to labour”. The word comes specifically from the Banjarese variety of Malay.The word ws first arrested in English in 1691 in the form Orang Outang, and variants with –ng instead of –n as in the Malay original are found in many languages. This spelling (and pronunciation) has remained in use in English up to the present, but has come to be regarded as incorrect. The loss of “h” in Utang and the shift from n to ng has been taken to suggest that the language entered English through Portuguese. In the 1869 British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, co-creator of modern evolutionary theory published his account Malaysia’s wildlife: The Malay Archipelago: The Land of the Orang Utan and the Bird of Paradise.
The name of the genus, Pongo, comes from a 16th century account by Andrew Battel an English sailor held prisoner by the Portuguese in Angola, which describes two anthropoid "monsters" named Pongo and Engeco. It is now believed that he was describing Gorillas, but in the late 18th century it was believed that all great apes were orangutans; hence Lacepede’s use of Pongo for the genus.
The orangutans are two exclusively South East Asia species of extant great apes specially native to Indonesia and Malaysia, orang utan are currently found only in the forest of Indonesia Borneo and Malaysia Borneo and also Sumatra of Indonesia. Classified in the genus Pongo, the Orang Utan were considered to be one species. However, since 1996, they were divided into two species : the Bornean Orang Utan (P.pygmaeus) and the Sumatra Orangutan (P.Abelii). In addition, the Bornean species is devided into Gigantopithecus, the largest known primate. Both species had their gemones sequenced and they appear to have diverged around 400.000 years ago. Orang Utan diverged from the rest of the great apes approx. 15.7 to 19.3 million years ago.
The Orang Utan are the most arboreal great apes and spend most of their time in trees. Their hair is typically reddish-brown, instead of the brown or black hair typically of chimpanzees and gorillas. Males and females differ in size and appearance. Dominant adult males have distinctive cheek pads and produce long calls that attract females and intimidate rivals. Younger males do not have these characteristics and resemble adult females. Orangutans are the most solitary of the great apes, with social bonds occurring primarily between mothers and their dependent offspring, who stay together for the first two years. Fruit is the most important component of an orangutan's diet, however, the apes will also eat vegetation, bark, honey, insects and even bird eggs. They can live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
The Orangutans are among the most intelligent and use a variety of sophisticated tools, also constructing elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes have been extensively studied for their learning abilities. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations. Field studies of the apes were pioneered by primatologist Birute Galdikas. Both orangutan species are considered to be endangered with the Sumatran orangutan being critically endangered. Human activities have decimated the populations and ranges of both species. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching, habitat destruction and the illegal pet trade. There are several conservation and rehabilitation organisations dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild.
TAXONOMY, PHYLOGENY AND GENETICS
The two species of Orang Utan are the only extant members of the subfamily panginae. The subfamily also include the extinct genera Lufengpithecus, which live in southern China and Thailand 2 – 8 million years ago, and Sivapithecus, which lived in Indonesia and Pakistan from 12.5 million years ago. These Apes likely lived in drier and cooler environments then Orang Utan do today. Khoratpithecus piriyai, which lived in Thailand 5 – 7 million years ago, is believed to have been the closest known relative of the Orang Utans. The largest known primate, Gigantopithecus, was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China, India and Vietnam from the 5 million years ago. Within ape (superfamily Hominoidea), the gibbons diverged during the early Miocene (between 19.7 and 24.1 million years ago, according to molecular evidence and the Orang Utan split from the African great ape lineage between 15.7 and 19.3 million years ago.
Taxonomy of genus Pongo
Genus Pongo
Phylogeny of superfamily Hominoidea
Hominoidea
The populations on the two islands were classified as subspecies until 1996, when they were elevated to full species status, and the three distinct population on Borneo were elevated to subspecies. The population currently listed as P.p. Wurmbii may be closer to the Sumatran Orang Utan than the other Bornean Orang Utan subspecies. If confirmed abelii would be a subspecies of P.Wurmbii (Tiedeman, 1808). Regardless, the type of locality of pygmaeus has not been established beyond doubts, and may be from the population currently listed as Wurmbii (in which case Wurmbii would be a junior synonym of pygmaeus, while one of the names currently considered a junior synonym of pygmaeus would take precedence for the northwest Bornean taxon. To further confuse, the name morio, as we as some suggested junior synonyms, may be junior synonyms of the pygmaeus subspecies, thus leaving the east Bornean population unnamed. In addition, some fossils described under the name P.hooijery have been found in Vietnam, and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several part of southeastern Asia. It is unclear if the belong to P.pygmaeus or P.Abelii or, in fact, represent distinct species.
ORANG UTAN - ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR
Orangutans live in primary and old secondary forests, particularly dipterocarp forests and peat swamp forest. Both species can be found in mountainous and lowland swampy areas. Sumatran orangutans live in elevations as high as 1500 m (4921 ft), while Bornean orangutans live no higher than 1000 m (3281 ft). Other habitats used by orangutans include grasslands, cultivated fields, gardens, young secondary forest, and shallow lakes. Orangutans are the most arboreal of the great apes, spending nearly all of their time in the trees. Most of the day is spent feeding, resting, and travelling. They start the day feeding for 2–3 hours in the morning. They rest during midday then travel in the late afternoon. When evening arrives, they begin to prepare their nests for the night. Orangutans do not swim, although they have been recorded wading in water.
The orangutans are two exclusively South East Asia species of extant great apes specially native to Indonesia and Malaysia, orang utan are currently found only in the forest of Indonesia Borneo and Malaysia Borneo and also Sumatra of Indonesia. Classified in the genus Pongo, the Orang Utan were considered to be one species. However, since 1996, they were divided into two species : the Bornean Orang Utan (P.pygmaeus) and the Sumatra Orangutan (P.Abelii). In addition, the Bornean species is devided into Gigantopithecus, the largest known primate. Both species had their gemones sequenced and they appear to have diverged around 400.000 years ago. Orang Utan diverged from the rest of the great apes approx. 15.7 to 19.3 million years ago.
The Orang Utan are the most arboreal great apes and spend most of their time in trees. Their hair is typically reddish-brown, instead of the brown or black hair typically of chimpanzees and gorillas. Males and females differ in size and appearance. Dominant adult males have distinctive cheek pads and produce long calls that attract females and intimidate rivals. Younger males do not have these characteristics and resemble adult females. Orangutans are the most solitary of the great apes, with social bonds occurring primarily between mothers and their dependent offspring, who stay together for the first two years. Fruit is the most important component of an orangutan's diet, however, the apes will also eat vegetation, bark, honey, insects and even bird eggs. They can live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
The Orangutans are among the most intelligent and use a variety of sophisticated tools, also constructing elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes have been extensively studied for their learning abilities. There may even be distinctive cultures within populations. Field studies of the apes were pioneered by primatologist Birute Galdikas. Both orangutan species are considered to be endangered with the Sumatran orangutan being critically endangered. Human activities have decimated the populations and ranges of both species. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching, habitat destruction and the illegal pet trade. There are several conservation and rehabilitation organisations dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild.
TAXONOMY, PHYLOGENY AND GENETICS
The two species of Orang Utan are the only extant members of the subfamily panginae. The subfamily also include the extinct genera Lufengpithecus, which live in southern China and Thailand 2 – 8 million years ago, and Sivapithecus, which lived in Indonesia and Pakistan from 12.5 million years ago. These Apes likely lived in drier and cooler environments then Orang Utan do today. Khoratpithecus piriyai, which lived in Thailand 5 – 7 million years ago, is believed to have been the closest known relative of the Orang Utans. The largest known primate, Gigantopithecus, was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China, India and Vietnam from the 5 million years ago. Within ape (superfamily Hominoidea), the gibbons diverged during the early Miocene (between 19.7 and 24.1 million years ago, according to molecular evidence and the Orang Utan split from the African great ape lineage between 15.7 and 19.3 million years ago.
Taxonomy of genus Pongo
Genus Pongo
· Bornean Orang Utan (Pongo pygmaeus)
- Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus – north west populations
- Pongo pygmaeus morio – east populations
- Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii – southwest populations
- Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus – north west populations
- Pongo pygmaeus morio – east populations
- Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii – southwest populations
· Sumatran Orang Utan (Pongo Abelii)
Hominoidea
· Humans (Genus Homo)
· Chimpanzees (Genus Pan)
· Gorillas (genus Gorilla)
· Orang Utan (Genus Pongo)
· Gibbons (family Hylobatidae)
ORANG UTAN - ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR
The main predators of orangutans are tiger. Other predators include clouded leopards, wild dogs and crocodiles. The absence of tigers on Borneo may explain why Bornean orangutans can be found on the ground more often than their Sumatran relatives. Orangutans communicate with various sounds. Male will make long calls, both to attract females and advertise themselves to other males. Both sexes will try to intimidate conspecifics with a series of low guttural noises known collectively as the "rolling call". When annoyed, an orangutan will suck in air through pursed lips, which makes a kissing sound and is hence known as the "kiss squeak". Infants make soft hoots when distressed. Orangutans are also known to blow a raspberry.
DIET
Orangutans are opportunistic foragers, and their diets vary markedly from month to month. Fruit makes up 65–90% of the orangutan diet, and those with sugary or fatty pulp are favored. Ficus fruits are commonly eaten and are easy to harvest and digest. Lowland dipterocarp forests are preferred by orangutans because of their plentiful fruit. Bornean orangutans consume at least 317 different food items that include young leaves, shoots, bark, insects, honey and bird eggs.
A decade-long study of urine and faecal samples at the Gunung Palung Orang Utan Conservation Project in West of Kalimantan Indonesia has shown that orangutans give birth during and after the high fruit season (though not every year), during which they consume various abundant fruits, totaling up to 11,000 calories per day. In the low fruit season they eat whatever fruit is available in addition to tree bark and leaves, with daily intake at only 2,000 calories. Together with a long lactation period, orangutans also have a long birth interval. Orangutans are thought to be the sole fruit disperser for some plant species including the climber species Strychnos ignatii which contains the toxic alkaloid strychnine. It does not appear to have any effect on orangutans except for excessive saliva production.
Geography, the practice of eating soil or rock, has been observed in orangutans. There are three main reasons for this dietary behavior; for the addition of mineral nutrients to their diet; for the ingestion of clay minerals that can absorb toxic substances; or to treat a disorder such as diarrhoea. Orangutans also use plants of the genus Cammelina as an anti-inflammatory balm.
SOCIAL LIFE
The Orangutans live a more solitary lifestyle than the other great apes. Most social bonds occur between adult females and their dependent and weaned offspring. Adult males and independent adolescents of both sexes tend to live alone. Orangutan societies are made up of resident and transient individuals of both sexes. Resident females live with their offspring in defined home ranges that overlap with those of other adult females, who may be their immediate relatives. One to several resident female home ranges are encompassed within the home range of a resident male, who is their main mating partner. Transient males and females move widely. Orangutans usually travel alone, but they may travel in small groups in their sub-adult years. However this behavior ends at adulthood. The social structure of the orangutan can be best described as solitary but social. Interactions between adult females range from friendly, to avoidance to antagonistic. Resident males may have overlapping ranges and interactions between them tend to be hostile.
During dispersal, females tend to settle in home ranges that overlap with their mothers. However, they do not seem to have any special social bonds with them. Males disperse much farther from their mothers and enter into a transient phase. This phase lasts until a male can challenge and displace a dominant, resident male from his home range. Adult males dominate sub-adult males. Both resident and transient orangutans aggregate on large fruiting trees to feed. The fruits tend to be abundant, so competition is low and individuals may engage in social interactions. Orangutans will also form traveling groups with members moving between different food sources. These groups tend to be made of only a few individuals. They also tend to be consortships between an adult male and female.
NESTING
Orangutan build nests specialized for both day or night use. These are carefully constructed; young orangutans learn from observing their mother's nest-building behavior. In fact, nest-building is a leading cause in young orangutans leaving their mother for the first time. From six months of age onwards, orangutans practice nest building and gain proficiency by the time they are three years old.
DIET
Orangutans are opportunistic foragers, and their diets vary markedly from month to month. Fruit makes up 65–90% of the orangutan diet, and those with sugary or fatty pulp are favored. Ficus fruits are commonly eaten and are easy to harvest and digest. Lowland dipterocarp forests are preferred by orangutans because of their plentiful fruit. Bornean orangutans consume at least 317 different food items that include young leaves, shoots, bark, insects, honey and bird eggs.
A decade-long study of urine and faecal samples at the Gunung Palung Orang Utan Conservation Project in West of Kalimantan Indonesia has shown that orangutans give birth during and after the high fruit season (though not every year), during which they consume various abundant fruits, totaling up to 11,000 calories per day. In the low fruit season they eat whatever fruit is available in addition to tree bark and leaves, with daily intake at only 2,000 calories. Together with a long lactation period, orangutans also have a long birth interval. Orangutans are thought to be the sole fruit disperser for some plant species including the climber species Strychnos ignatii which contains the toxic alkaloid strychnine. It does not appear to have any effect on orangutans except for excessive saliva production.
Geography, the practice of eating soil or rock, has been observed in orangutans. There are three main reasons for this dietary behavior; for the addition of mineral nutrients to their diet; for the ingestion of clay minerals that can absorb toxic substances; or to treat a disorder such as diarrhoea. Orangutans also use plants of the genus Cammelina as an anti-inflammatory balm.
SOCIAL LIFE
The Orangutans live a more solitary lifestyle than the other great apes. Most social bonds occur between adult females and their dependent and weaned offspring. Adult males and independent adolescents of both sexes tend to live alone. Orangutan societies are made up of resident and transient individuals of both sexes. Resident females live with their offspring in defined home ranges that overlap with those of other adult females, who may be their immediate relatives. One to several resident female home ranges are encompassed within the home range of a resident male, who is their main mating partner. Transient males and females move widely. Orangutans usually travel alone, but they may travel in small groups in their sub-adult years. However this behavior ends at adulthood. The social structure of the orangutan can be best described as solitary but social. Interactions between adult females range from friendly, to avoidance to antagonistic. Resident males may have overlapping ranges and interactions between them tend to be hostile.
During dispersal, females tend to settle in home ranges that overlap with their mothers. However, they do not seem to have any special social bonds with them. Males disperse much farther from their mothers and enter into a transient phase. This phase lasts until a male can challenge and displace a dominant, resident male from his home range. Adult males dominate sub-adult males. Both resident and transient orangutans aggregate on large fruiting trees to feed. The fruits tend to be abundant, so competition is low and individuals may engage in social interactions. Orangutans will also form traveling groups with members moving between different food sources. These groups tend to be made of only a few individuals. They also tend to be consortships between an adult male and female.
NESTING
Orangutan build nests specialized for both day or night use. These are carefully constructed; young orangutans learn from observing their mother's nest-building behavior. In fact, nest-building is a leading cause in young orangutans leaving their mother for the first time. From six months of age onwards, orangutans practice nest building and gain proficiency by the time they are three years old.
Construction of a night nest is done by following a sequence of steps. Initially a suitable tree is located, orangutans being selective about sites even though many tree species are utilized. The foundation is then built by pulling together branches under them and joining them at a point. After the foundation has been built, the orangutan bends smaller, leafy branches onto the foundation; this serves the purpose of and is termed as the "mattress". After this orangutans stand and braid the tips of branches into the mattress. This increases the stability of the nest and forms the final act of nest building. In addition, orangutans may add additional features such as "pillows", "blankets", "roofs" and "bunk-beds" to their nest
REPRODUCTION AND PARENTING OF ORANG UTAN
Males mature at around 15 years of age, by which time they have fully descended testicles and can reproduce. However they exhibit arrested development by not developing the distinctive cheek pads, pronounced throat pouches, long fur or long-calls until they are between 15 and 20 years old. The development of these characteristics depends largely on the absence of a resident male. Males without them are known as unflanged males in contrast to the more developed flanged males. The transformation from unflanged to flanged can occur very quickly. Unflanged and flanged males have two different mating strategies. Flanged males attract oestrous females with their characteristic long calls. Those calls may also suppress development in younger males. Unflanged males wander widely in search of oestrous females and upon finding one, will force copulation on her. Both strategies are successful, however females prefer to mate with flanged males and seek their company for protection against unflanged males. Resident males may form consortships with females that can last days, weeks or months after copulation.
Female orangutans experience their first ovulatory cycle around 5.8–11.1 years. These occur earlier in females with more body fat. Like other great apes, female orangutans enter a period of infertility during adolescence which may last for 1–4 years. Female orangutans also have a 22–30 day menstrual cycle. Gestation lasts for nine months with females giving birth to their first offspring between the ages of 14 and 15 years. Female orangutans have eight year intervals between births; the longest interbirth intervals among the great apes. Unlike many other primates, male orangutans do not seem to practice infanticide. This may be because they cannot ensure that they will sire a female's next offspring because she does not immediately begin ovulating again after her infant dies.
Male orangutans play almost no role in raising the young. Females do most of the caring and socializing of the young. A female often has an older offspring with her to help in socializing the infant. Infant orangutans are completely dependent on their mothers for the first two years of their lives. The mother will carry the infant during traveling, as well as feed it and sleep with it in the same night nest. For the first four months, the infant is carried on its belly and never relieves physical contact. In the following months, the time a infant spends with its mother decreases. When an orangutan reaches the age of two, its climbing skills improve and will travel through the canopy holding hands with other orangutans, a behavior known as "buddy travel". Orangutans are juveniles for about two to five years of age and will start to temporarily move away from their mothers. Juveniles are usually weaned at about four years of age. Adolescent orangutans will socialize with their peers while still having contact with their mothers. Typically, orangutans live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
INTELLIGENCE
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates. Experiments suggest that they can figure out some invisible displacement problem with a representational strategy. In addition, ZOO ATLANTA, has a touch screen computer where their two Sumatran orangutans play games. Scientists hope that the data they collect from this will help researchers learn about socializing patterns, such as whether they mimic others or learn behavior from trial and error, and hope the data can point to new conservation strategies. A 2008 study of two orangutans at the Leipzig Zoo showed that orangutans are the first non-human species documented to use 'calculated reciprocity' which involves weighing the costs and benefits of gift exchanges and keeping track of these over time. Every evening orangutan makes a new nest only in 5 to 6 minutes. Orangutan chooses a big branch which can supports his/her body weight and small sub-branches as sleeping pad, orangutan knows about the material (strength) of branch. Orangutan has a great technology to build the nest.
REPRODUCTION AND PARENTING OF ORANG UTAN
Males mature at around 15 years of age, by which time they have fully descended testicles and can reproduce. However they exhibit arrested development by not developing the distinctive cheek pads, pronounced throat pouches, long fur or long-calls until they are between 15 and 20 years old. The development of these characteristics depends largely on the absence of a resident male. Males without them are known as unflanged males in contrast to the more developed flanged males. The transformation from unflanged to flanged can occur very quickly. Unflanged and flanged males have two different mating strategies. Flanged males attract oestrous females with their characteristic long calls. Those calls may also suppress development in younger males. Unflanged males wander widely in search of oestrous females and upon finding one, will force copulation on her. Both strategies are successful, however females prefer to mate with flanged males and seek their company for protection against unflanged males. Resident males may form consortships with females that can last days, weeks or months after copulation.
Female orangutans experience their first ovulatory cycle around 5.8–11.1 years. These occur earlier in females with more body fat. Like other great apes, female orangutans enter a period of infertility during adolescence which may last for 1–4 years. Female orangutans also have a 22–30 day menstrual cycle. Gestation lasts for nine months with females giving birth to their first offspring between the ages of 14 and 15 years. Female orangutans have eight year intervals between births; the longest interbirth intervals among the great apes. Unlike many other primates, male orangutans do not seem to practice infanticide. This may be because they cannot ensure that they will sire a female's next offspring because she does not immediately begin ovulating again after her infant dies.
Male orangutans play almost no role in raising the young. Females do most of the caring and socializing of the young. A female often has an older offspring with her to help in socializing the infant. Infant orangutans are completely dependent on their mothers for the first two years of their lives. The mother will carry the infant during traveling, as well as feed it and sleep with it in the same night nest. For the first four months, the infant is carried on its belly and never relieves physical contact. In the following months, the time a infant spends with its mother decreases. When an orangutan reaches the age of two, its climbing skills improve and will travel through the canopy holding hands with other orangutans, a behavior known as "buddy travel". Orangutans are juveniles for about two to five years of age and will start to temporarily move away from their mothers. Juveniles are usually weaned at about four years of age. Adolescent orangutans will socialize with their peers while still having contact with their mothers. Typically, orangutans live over 30 years in both the wild and captivity.
INTELLIGENCE
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates. Experiments suggest that they can figure out some invisible displacement problem with a representational strategy. In addition, ZOO ATLANTA, has a touch screen computer where their two Sumatran orangutans play games. Scientists hope that the data they collect from this will help researchers learn about socializing patterns, such as whether they mimic others or learn behavior from trial and error, and hope the data can point to new conservation strategies. A 2008 study of two orangutans at the Leipzig Zoo showed that orangutans are the first non-human species documented to use 'calculated reciprocity' which involves weighing the costs and benefits of gift exchanges and keeping track of these over time. Every evening orangutan makes a new nest only in 5 to 6 minutes. Orangutan chooses a big branch which can supports his/her body weight and small sub-branches as sleeping pad, orangutan knows about the material (strength) of branch. Orangutan has a great technology to build the nest.
